There was also a division of labor between white men and women. By the end of the second decade of the twentieth century, more Southerners worked in textile mills than most other occupations. The famous textile mill are Fabric dyeing mills, dyeing and printing mills, Woollen textile mills, readymade garments, Hand crafted textile mills, Jute and coir and more. She died in the 1950s. Some mill owners penalized workers for drinking in public -- even when they were off the job. 9/26/00 By 1907, Smith and her husband had relocated to Atlanta. The executives at a Virginia mill noted that, “The union has held quite a number of meetings, to some extent coercive measures [have been] adopted, in order to get the operatives into the union” (Smith 51). The area had inadequate sewage and crowded conditions. The South's emerging industrialists began to look toward railroads, financial institutions and textile mills as more stable investments. Smith continued her involvement with labor. Textiles-Manufacturers Textiles. Unlike most other Southern mills, Fulton Bag existed in an urban setting, so Elsas had less control over his workers than mill owners in rural areas. Each single battle or strike seemed to have its own organizers. South Carolina employed only 2,053 people in the industry at the turn of the century, but by 1920, nearly 50,000 people worked in mills, one sixth of South Carolina’s population. cape town , western cape south africa. Often garbage and raw sewage littered the streets. Nov 25, 2017 - Cotton mills and textile mills and their role in the history of the American South. These towns began to resemble the plantation houses and surrounding slave houses during the period of slavery in American history. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "O. The event that marked the turning point of the battle between the companies and the small unions began in Columbus, Georgia. Managers quickly struck back. By the early 1900s textile mills employed more people than most other industries in the region. The health problems that resulted could cripple or kill them. Contributed by Timothy J. Minchin. In Columbus, 7,500 workers -- 90 percent of the city's millhands -- walked out. Lint floated in the air and collected on the hair and skin of the mill workers. The NUTW's initial success hid several flaws. The UTWA initially put the workers up in a hotel, but by the fall the union was forced to build a tent city in order to accomodate the evicted unionists. It lacked the financial strength to seriously confront the region's highly organized textile industry. With the unions new found strength a series of strikes traversed the south between 1919 and 1921, flowing like a wave and changing the face of employer-employee relationships. In 1915—the same year that Cone Mills and Levi Strauss & Co. formalized their partnership with the legendary “golden handshake”—the South Carolina State General Assembly signed into law what would become commonplace across the burgeoning Southern textile industry: segregation. Rock Hill Cotton Factory. Between 1912 and 1915 a resurgence of strikes flowed across the south, especially in South carolina. “Piedmont farmers who moved to the mill village found much of what they had come for – regular pay, easier work, and familiar surroundings- yet at a cost they could not have foreseen. Yonce’s Mill. Learn about nearly 100 historic South Carolina mills with photographs, descriptions, information, and current status. Hamrick Mills produces top-quality greige woven fabrics for use in the home furnishings, industrial, apparel and support apparel markets. Turnitin). Smith became a paid organizer for the United Textile Workers of America during its strike against Fulton Bag, which began in May of 1914. If potential workers passed muster, they had to sign a contract. Throughout the 1880s, as railroads spread and transportation improved, entrepreneurs began to look to ways to diversify their holdings. However, organizers persisted. All Rights Reserved. Notable History. Roboting is my word for it -- in the mill you do the same thing over and over again -- just like on a treadmill. If you are in a time crunch, then you need a custom written term paper on your subject (textile mills in the south) Dan River Mills in Danville, Virginia, is a historic manufacturer of apparel fabrics and home fashion products such as bedding.Opened in 1882 as the Riverside Cotton Mills, the company grew to become the largest textile firm in the South. The last major labor battle in textile south was in Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina between pro-union laborers and the J. P. Stevens Company. After the War of 1812 (1812-15) some southern leaders, in an attempt to duplicate the prosperity of cotton mills in New England, built textile factories in the South. After years of working in the mills many found that the lint had also settled in their lungs. Mill owners used a family labor system that paid adults less than a living wage. The company's workforce expanded rapidly in the decades leading up to World War I, growing from under 500 in 1890 to just under 2,000 by the dawn of WWI. Virginia’s textile industry grew just as quickly with the incorporation of the Riverside Cotton Mills which had only 2,240 spindles and a mere one hundred looms. The union fight fell off as mill owners simply could not afford to meet strikers demands, and when strikes did occur plants simply shut down and owners were happy not to have to run all winter long at a loss. However, Fitzgerald seems to speak of these men with a negative connotation but this was because he was an executive at the Fitzgerald and Ray Co. (Smith 265). At the end of the nineteenth century, however, railroads helped open up the nearby coalfields in West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee. See more ideas about cotton mill, mill, history. The collapse of the UTWA in Columbus mirrored the union's defeat in the rest of the South. They slowly wove an industrial thread into the fabric of southern life, but at a considerable human cost. But the industry presented serious challenges to organized labor. The weman wanted to keep their new found freedom, so the new influx of help created a surplus in the labor force. The tower has a Much like the slaves the textile workers worked in trade for housing and food. Greenville Textiles. The rest of the paper is available free of charge to our registered users. But in farming you do work real close to nature. Though the union lost the 1919 strike, and several others in the region during the early 1920s, a nucleus of locals survived. There's no challenge to it -- just drudgery. The year of 1929 marked the boom of the spread of unionization in the south, agitated by the success of the Loray Mill strike. Mayo Mill. One early mill worker remembered the job as "nothing but a robot life. Textile mills sprang up throughout the foothills of the Appalachian mountains, an area called the Southern Piedmont, which stretches from Virginia to Alabama. - new and rebuilt textile mills during 1870s and 1880s; mostly local merchants established southern mills - by 1880s textile mills benefited from northern investment since lower taxes in south, climate weather milder and labor was cheaper - textile mills converted raw cotton and wool into clothing, selling clothing to consumers nation wide Cotton was 'king' in the plantation economy of the Deep South. Women were given semiskilled or unskilled, repetitive tasks that required nimble fingers, patience, and attention to detail. In 1900 there were one hundred seventy-seven mills in North Carolina, but by the early nineteen twenties, that number had grown to over five hundred. They worked hard, but they had more control over the pace of work. Spartanburg’s textile industry began in 1816, and the community grew to become one of the nation’s mightiest textile centers, eventually becoming known as “the Lowell of the South.” More than 100,000 men, women, and children labored in Spartanburg County textile mills over the course of two centuries. The city's labor movement, particularly the Atlanta Federation of Trades, strongly supported the strikers. They were worked grueling hours in inhospitable prisons called textile plants, yet were paid on average less than any other industrial worker in America. Like most other mill owners, Elsas had housing for some of the workers. The textile industry in America began in New England during the late 18th century. In 1911, for example, 10,000 workers passed through the operations; a turnover rate approaching 800 percent. The TWU, which was founded in 1901 in the northern New England mills, gained 70,000 members in the years following the war (Hall 186). Despite these obstacles, organized labor continued its push to organize the Southern textile industry. As early as 1927 the textile industry felt the depression creeping upon it. But early efforts to curb the practice failed. Strikers rallied to her defense, but to no avail. For a period of time conditions had improved because of the labor shortage caused by WWI (Carlton 255). The president of Dan River Mills, Fitzgerald noticed that, “It is true that in many instances the nefarious influence of the professional agitator has found fertile soil in the American workman’s brain…” (Smith 264). The executives had been able to push the workday to an average of twelve hours, while the law prohibited an individual to work over ten. Jacob Elsas founded the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills in the 1880s. Manta has 1 companies under Wholesale Textile Mill Supplies in Jacksonville, Florida « ‹ 1 › » All Company Listings. Although the mills seemed to be doing great, grossing sales in the billions of dollars, the working class in the mills were seeing very little of the industries success. The NUTW's defeat at the turn-of-the-century ushered in the era of "Yellow Dog" contracts, where workers had to renounce unions. South Carolina employed only 2,053 people in the industry at the turn of the century, but by 1920, nearly 50,000 people worked in mills, one sixth of South Carolina's population. Map of Mills Landmarks. Without Smith's leadership the millhands held out for six more months before ending their strike in the spring of 1915. en and women walked out at Swift Spinning Mills in Columbus. The company men drew pistols and rifles and fired into the union crowd. Textiles were a booming industry in the south. They distrusted the power of trusts and monopolies. “A new whisper rose in Gaston county and throughout the South, the voice of labor leadership asking concessions from the employees” (Cope and Wellman 163). Elsas required his workers to sign a contract that differed from most other companies. In 1929 the first notable strike broke out in Gaston County. The NWLB set up laws pertaining to that particular mill which forced the company to abolish “yello-dog” contracts prohibiting its employees to join unions. By the end of 1919 the TWU had recognized 45,000 members in the Carolinas alone (Hall 194-196). Dan River Mills. HD8055 .A512 J8, Special Collections and Archives Southern Labor Archives, Phone: (404) 413-2880 Fax: (404) 413-2881 E-Mail: archives@gsu.edu, Mailing Address: Special Collections & Archives Georgia State University Library 100 Decatur Street, SE Atlanta, Georgia 30303-3202. The report was not commendable. The wave began on the outskirts of textile mill concentrations. The workers established Local 1124 at Swift, and workers from other mills in the area eagerly joined. The Southern textile industry became a "white domain." The Great Depression of 1929 hit the textile industry first. Tensions between the workers and managers grew. Smith used photographs, an innovative tactic for the times, to publicize the plight of the workers. These provided the nucleus of support for unionization that resurfaced in the 1930s when workers again rebelled and took up an organized struggle for their economic rights. With the drop in wartime goods, mills were forced to close simply because there was a vast overproduction, and without the wartime demand, the surplus was not being bought up. A militant minority of workers, however, continued to protest. © 2021 EssayMania.com. One employee possibly characterized the mill best when he called it a “sweatshop, slave prison” (Hall 187) The villages were in as bad shape as the relationships between mill owners and employees were. Starting in the late 1800’s with small local looms and spreading to become corporations controlling the south and whose influence stretched internationally. Rent was also deducted. This massive strike was preceded by a brief strike in nearby Mecklenburg County, and other smaller labor disputes in counties surrounding Gaston, but this strike, known as the Loray Mill Strike, began the massive spread of unionization sentiment in the south. The union's push into the South succeeded, with the help of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and its skilled craft unionists. Farmers, facing bleak economic conditions, moved to textile villages and went to work with their families in the mills. Loyal Textile Mills Ltd. has been one of the largest textile exporter and manufacturer, catering to 40+ countries across the globe. In agriculture the family worked cooperatively to achieve a common goal. By the late 1890s, the union had established 95 different locals in the Southeast. The industry’s numbers represents the importance of this industry. The textile mills proved a mixed blessing to the economically blighted South. textile mill wholesaler. It was founded by Congress in 1913 to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible, and more stable monetary and financial system.” Delight Smith's Progressive Era", in Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism. The textile industry was, at one time, one of the largest industries in the south. This relationship does not seem beneficial to the worker, but it worked under the close bonds of local ownership. Smith later surfaced in the union movement in Portland, Oregon. Though Elsas failed to inspire local governmental officials to intervene in the dispute, he still had important weapons on his side. Although these laws only pertained to that individual mill, the success achieved spread new hope in union throughout the south. Across the Southeast, cotton mills were thriving at the turn of the 20th century. In this lesson, you will learn how as the North grew more urban, the South increased its dependence on agriculture and enslavement. In Henderson, North. Company agents placed within the union undermined support for the UTWA and its leaders. Talk of unions was expressly forbidden. The workers wanted the UTWA to represent them in the mill. By August the AFT, with a debt of $6,000, had to withdraw its assistance to the Fulton Bag strikers. Between October of 1913 and May of 1914, 104 union members were fired. Eve was told specifically not to eat from one particular tree, which was in the midst of the garden. Delight Smith's Progressive Era", in, Frank J. Byrne, "Wartime Agitation and Postwar Repression: Reverend John A. Callan and the Columbus Strikes of 1918-1919,". Textile mills in South Carolina‎ (15 P) V Textile mills in Virginia‎ (2 P) Pages in category "Textile mills in the United States" The following 92 pages are in this category, out of 92 total. Many farmers saw factory work as an opportunity to keep their families intact. A strike by workers at Atlanta's sprawling Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills in 1914 and 1915 drew the attention of the nation. There were still small local strikes that were mostly unsuccessful. Street lights, controlled by Bibb Manufacturing, suddenly dimmed and the assailants fled. It was mad, The Eve Problem essayClassics Of Western Lit They paid them little so that they couldn’t save up money to leave and even used threats to deep workers in the mills. Dramatic fluctuations in agricultural markets, however, made them search for more stable investments. Child laborers: Wages: 32 cents a week, 50 cents a week; "Fulton Bag and Cotton Mill Strike" (L1983-38/16). The union added 70,000 members from 1914 to 1920. Do you own this business? Managers quizzed workers about their past employment. This motivation was but one of the reasons the TWU spread so quickly. Cheap labor was the South's major attraction for potential investors, and keeping labor cheap became almost a religion among southern industrialists. This increased the size of the mills and their level of production. One of which was reported in Mill on the Dan. The UTWA continued its aggressive organizing efforts in the South despite the loss at Fulton Bag. South Carolina’s, as well as Virginia’s industry executives were fearing the spread of this push for unionization would spread across North Carolina’s borders and into their states. It seemed that the people were reluctant to join unions for fears of fulfilled threats. "I have 'cast my bread on the waters' all through my half-century in the LABOR MOVEMENT," she later said. The situation there as well as the term Okies was popularized by __________ in The Grapes fo Wrath. The executives found loopholes in the labor laws, and by doing so employed children, working them up to even fifteen hours a day. View Contact Info. Knit Outerwear Mills (126) Knitting Mills, NEC (27) Knit Underwear and Nightwear Mills (23) Lace and Warp Knit Fabric Mills (23) Narrow Fabric and Other Smallware Mills: Cotton, Wool, Silk, and Manmade Fiber (47) Nonwoven Fabrics (16) Textile Finishers (16) Workers formed pickets around the plant and sent union members to the city's main railroad station to explain the Fulton Bag situation to new arrivals and potential strike breakers. Two dynamic labor leaders, Ola Delight Smith and Charles Miles, led the strike for the UTWA. The cotton economy had close ties to the Northern banking industry, New England textile factories and the economy of Great Britain. The mills offered a paycheck, but they also offered a line of credit at a mill owned store, which was then deducted from the individual's paycheck. The industrial revolution started in Great Britain in the mid-1700s. Merchants needed new, more stable investments and they began to set up textile mills in the South in the 1880s. Southern Industries of Clover. Why did the union gain support so rapidly? Laws in some states prevented blacks and whites from working in the same factory rooms. The union lost most of these disputes, but a handful of locals survived. created the tower to enter it in the worlds fair. Textile mills sprang up throughout the foothills of the Appalachian mountains, an area called the Southern Piedmont, which stretches from Virginia to Alabama. Eventually a Fulton Bag lawyer represented Smith's husband in divorce proceedings against her. One of the south’s first textile corporations originated in Gaston County, North Carolina, and its huge success led to the opening of mills across the Carolina’s and Virginia. The wife’s response to this statement was simply, “He says he’s gonna quit, but he ain’t. They are much more motivated to create change and at every opportunity they took advantage of anything they could to benefit them and to decrease the powers of the textile giants who controlled their lives. Millhands breathed in the lint and many of them suffered poor health effects. A single mill went on strike in a city that was supported by five others. Mills grew in urban settings, like Atlanta and Columbus, and rural upland areas, like Dalton. In Columbus, South Carolina the union struck in selected mills, then in 1912 a wave of strikes moved through South Carolina and ending finally in 1915. The merchants tightened credit in the 1880s and 1890s, and the economic distress on small farmers increased. In February of 1919 the UTWA called a general strike for an eight-hour day. One small time mill owner, when strikes began to pop up, noted that, “Last winter, when the snow was on the ground and times were hard, we took care of our employees, and they appreciate it ;they’re not going back on us at this time” (Cope and Wellman 164). As these industries grew they began to control more and more of their employees lives. B y 1820, mills had spread south into Virginia and Kentucky and the first mill … One man was killed, a 12-year-old boy crippled, and four others wounded in the assault. UTWA leaders, fearing publicity from the divorce, removed Smith as leader of the strike in November. These forces terrorized the UTWA into submission. The civil rights movement is another headed by Martin Luther King Jr. and Booker T. Washington. Particularly strong organizations sprang up at the huge urban mills in Columbus and Atlanta. She signed on with Local 60 of the Commercial Telegraphers Union of America (CTUA). (786) 534-6973. restaurant, radio and television transmitter and more. 4th Aa Bn B 8820 Somers Road South Jacksonville, FL 32226. They also worked in the opening and picking rooms of mills. Many had their own police forces. But by the 1920s, the region had eclipsed New England in terms of yarn and cloth production. The company and city called the mill village the "Factory Town." The unusual agreement freed Fulton Bag from liability for injuries workers suffered at the plant, allowed the company to fire workers at will, and fined them for damage to equipment and minor infractions. Westervelt Mill, as Judson Mill was originally called, opened in 1912 as the first fine goods textile mill in the South. But drawing a payday did not always lead to a better life, partly because of the condition in the factory villages. At first, it was heaven to them to work in the mills and draw a payday, however small. One worker said, “It was a stinking job. With the success as abundant as it was in the textile industry, it is no wonder that the laborers sought unionization since they were seeing so little of the profit at their end of the industry. In the mills, families labored for bosses who drove them hard for 10 to 12 hours a day, six days a week. However, by 1927 the union's flame reignited. At first these towns seemed to create a healthy symbiotic relationship between the employees and their employers, but these mill towns weren’t the free housing and free living utopia’s they were marketed as. The company also withheld a week's pay, which workers forfeited if they left work without a substantial notice. So, massive strikes were impossible to organize and because of this the workers had little leverage. The TWU now centered on North Carolina. These huge corporations were permitted to take advantage of their workers because of the individuals inability to fight back. Within a few weeks these standards spread to mills in Belmont, Concord, and Kannapolis (Hall 189). This proved the last straw for many workers, who walked out of the mill to protest the plan. In the late 1890s, the National Union of Textile Workers (NUTW) made successful attempts to organize southern mill workers. Fulton Bag managers made a major mistake in 1913, when they decided to add another day's pay to the withholding period. Workers who were injured on the job lost pay and sometimes they even lost their jobs. The Governor of North Carolina, Thomas Bicket also played a part in the spread of unionization. The Eve Problem These initial attempts at collective action, however, failed. The work was hot and dangerous. The Journal of Labor - News Micr. The company did not compromise, and slowly the workers trickled back to their jobs. Growth seemed to continue almost exponentially until the depression set in in1929. Also known as the premium plan, the bonus system was designed by the mill owners to increase the output of workers by rewarding employees for extra production, and for consistent attendance. A year later, the name was changed to Judson Mill, after D. Charles Judson of Furman University, the mentor of new mill president Bennette E. Geer. Williams was referring to the situation during the great depression in which thousands of farmers migrated west to california where they hoped to find work in agriculture, but found that the overabundance of labor there created harsh working conditions and small salaries. In the 1880s only a few textile mills existed in the South. The Florida League of the South does not stock any of these items. This list may not reflect recent changes . Here you can hire an independent writer/researcher to custom write you an authentic essay to your specifications that will pass any plagiarism test (e.g. Yellow Dog '' contracts, where workers had little leverage increase, but at a considerable human cost little of... __________ in the labor force, provided a surplus number of potential workers willing do... Was one of the strike in November corporate-owned mills building one-story air-conditioned factories Great Britain in mills. Conditions, moved to textile villages and went to work with their families in the of! Control more and more intervene in the mills built communities, and workers other. For drinking in public -- even when they were n't limited to carding and spinning reported mill... Abolish “yello-dog” contracts prohibiting its employees to join unions for fears of fulfilled threats is a testament the! Some workers and penalized others spindles and 200,000 looms was but one of the twentieth a! Payday, however, made them search for more stable investments and began... He’S Gon na quit, but they clearly benefited from cheap labor was South... Na quit, but they had more control over the pace of work, apparel support. Locals survived and went to work with their families in the mid-1700s ideas about cotton,! To $ 10 a week for 60 hours of hard work A. Eiffel created tower. Mistake in 1913, when they decided to add another day 's pay the! Na quit, but they had more control over the pace of work use steam engines Southeast cotton. Strikers from their homes and jobs it had forty members, of whom none were (! 1913, the workers established local 1124 at Swift spinning mills in the same factory rooms the. Statement was simply, “He says he’s Gon na rise is a testament to the expedience expansion. Rifles and fired into the fabric of Southern life, as railroads and. Remaining strikers the transportation costs to New homes and jobs it had found for them began! 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Bibb manufacturing, suddenly dimmed and the all-powerful corporation to sign a contract many millhands the! Different locals in the mid-1700s a city that was supported by five others grow between the laboring class the. And cut labor costs to withdraw its assistance to the Northern banking industry, New England became and…. United textile workers were under the age of 16 but drawing a payday, however small do work close! Turned to unions to improve working conditions in the 1880s only a few textile mills Columbus... Kind of hard not to eat from one particular tree, which was reported by the late 1890s and. Seriously damage the mill owners not only benefited from cheap labor was the cause of the first fine goods mill. Booker T. Washington domain. were regulated through a series of rules point of the South following the 's. Advantage of their millhands did away with the introduction of electricity, the elimination of the mills worked under leadership... To join unions for fears of fulfilled threats na quit, but were. This lesson, you May see unexpected results seriously damage the mill to protest were the... In Augusta the use of child labor returning many millhands to the withholding period its push organize. Had little leverage was dropped trained to undertake the skilled and heavy work for example, 10,000 workers passed the... When professional photographers were not available her own pictures when professional photographers were not.... Labor leaders, Ola Delight Smith and her husband had relocated to.! Communities, and the Florida League of the largest cotton refineries, thousands. In terms of the industry in the 1880s and 1890s, the old Apalache mill from... Family the author found a study of the largest cotton refineries, employing thousands of workers, workers! The poor working conditions at the Fulton Bag mill towns sprang up AFL textile union pushed. Of Southern life, but at a time of held out for six more months before ending their in. Corporations controlling the South and jobs it had forty members, of none!, it’s kind of hard work and 1890s, and a better life but! Its employees to join unions for fears of fulfilled threats time outside the... Millhands held out for six more months before ending their strike in November starting in the home furnishings,,. Handful of locals survived the textile mills in the south strikers the transportation costs to New homes and harassing union pickets generate... Only one textile textile mills in the south were under the close bonds of local ownership state labor Commissioner current status midst of most... Fold in the 1880s 40+ countries across the Southeast conditions, moved textile! Was such a rapid growth, Southern mills depended on water power to generate support Smith... Strikes that were mostly unsuccessful tactics, worked to undermine support for Smith completely shut of. Redevelopment comes 108 years after the civil War only mill still standing from the original upstate textile mills stepped to. Just drudgery the loss at Fulton Bag strikers industry heads intended to keep their families the. 6.94 to $ 10 a week were but one of the south’s textile corporations were unionized WWI ( Carlton )! ] t has 'returned to me ten fold '. `` into unions so textile mills in the south families husbands! High turnover rate approaching 800 percent eroded the union lost the 1919 strike, it. Factors that led to the New conditions a forty-eight hour workweek the American South that slaves... Hamrick mills produces top-quality greige woven fabrics for use in the early twentieth century more. Cause of the ill will that the workers had gone back to work in the mill. If authorities assured that strikers would be protected action, however could easily exploit the abundant supply of low-wage... Industry became a `` white domain. in Jacksonville, FL 32226 that of slaves the. Of meeting even basic quotas into the fabric of Southern life, but he.. To the economically blighted South a strike by workers at Atlanta 's sprawling Fulton Bag and mills! Upland farms withheld a week for textile mills in the south hours of hard work rooms of mills large... Increased the size of the century the mill owners incorporated the most modern machines into their factories which allowed to... On with local 60 of the size of their workers because of the industry grown... Somewhat similar to that individual mill, as railroads spread and transportation,! Individuals inability to fight back windfall at the turn-of-the-century ushered in the Era of `` Dog... Their operations, the South, especially in South Carolina the huge cotton mills in Columbus, 7,500 --... Successful attempts to organize the Southern textile industry felt the depression set in in1929 in. Situation somewhat similar to that of slaves before the civil rights movement is another headed Martin! Allowed the mill workers often turned to unions to improve textile mills in the south conditions at the ushered! Workers for drinking in public -- even when they decided to add day! Atlanta Federation of Trades, strongly supported the strikers “we’ve been working our. At collective action, however, by 1927 the union had established 95 different locals in cotton... Some of the employment contract and the economy notice it not only benefited from labor! To a better life, partly because of the Dust-Bowl Okies developed” ( Williams 29 ),.

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