Generators are helpful in memory optimization because they … It's a script that calculates the number of circular prime numbers from 2 to a given number N. A circular prime is a very special kind of prime number because all … Your Python-based applications and websites are only as good as the performance of your infrastructure, which is why application performance is too important to leave to chance. Thank… Python has developed a reputation as a solid, high-performance language. So here are 10 Data Science libraries that can help you get an edge: Pandas_ml Code. It seems that every day now we hear about some exciting new breakthrough, Back in 2006 a visionary created and launched a cloud-based monitoring service for websites to enable those running them to know when they were down or when they had service, Super Bowl 50 had over 100 million viewers tune in to watch the epic battle of football warriors, coaching strategists and most importantly – the Super Bowl commercials. I would start by learning about some of the more easily-accessible functional programming paradigms map, filter and reduce. Numpy to get arrays in Python, Pandas to manipulate the data, pandas_datareader to get the stock data that we need, matplotlib.pyplot to make a visual representation of our efficient frontier. I have code that works, and but it's not super efficient I don't know how to make it so it is not storing all the files data at the same time: Decoder.Py: import sys as sys # send the output to the console DEFAULT_OUTPUT_FILE = '' def … __slots__: 'the __slots__ declaration takes a sequence of instance variables and reserves just enough space in each instance to hold a value for each variable. Read on! For example, if there is a way to combine the last 2 elif statements into one and do the filtering using filter_by or filter. Update: in the first iteration of this article I did a 'value in set(list)' but this is actually expensive because you have to do the list-to-set cast. And by taking advantage of the strongest third-party packages. ; Updated: 12 Dec 2020. Although it is reasonably easy to pick up Python a nd learn the basics, getting better and more efficient at programming in Python is a constant learning curve. Premature optimization is the root of all evil. Tag: python,performance,dictionary,nested-loops,defaultdict. The trade-off here is that more variables are better for debugging, but (especially in scripting languages over compiled languages), not using too many variables would be more efficient. [QUIZ] Is Your Website Ready For Holidays? If you were to look, Data, data, and more data. \$\begingroup\$ The reason I use eqDict and subVal is because each step the values of 'init0' is changed as the next of the Euler step depends on the solutions of the previous step. Fountain Code: Efficient Python Implementation of LT Codes - Spriteware/lt-codes-python. Looping over Python … Free source code and tutorials for Software developers and Architects. The suggested set(a) & set(b) instead of double-for-loop has this same problem. How can I use nested dictionaries to make my fuzzy matching code more efficient? You can find out more about how micro:bit music works in Python here. There were some more comments there which I will update in this article for completeness and correctness. How to make it efficient ? LRU = Least Recently Used and a good use case is fetching data from the web (the docs page has an example of LRU cache for static web content). These devices don't have many resources (CPU, RAM) and so it's important to write efficient scripts. Don’t Repeat Yourself: Remove Repetition in Your Code Why Write Efficient Code. I’m trying to create a program to help people with their time management, but I can’t figure out how to get it into tkinter. Accept Reject. Use them! The examples will highlight how much you can achieve with a few lines of Python. What are your favorite tricks to speed up your Python code? It’s your portal for inviting users to come and survey your products and, Web hosting often doesn’t register in most people’s minds as something with far-reaching business consequences. Python code to organize a relay event. If you have to repeat code, consider creating a function for it. This very unique course will teach not just how Python memory management works and how to create code that functions well within that world, it will provide many concrete techniques, tools, design patterns, and more to make your programs more memory efficient and computationally faster to boot. Reduce the amounts of if/elif/and/or. Instead of writing long code that's less efficient---a convention in procedural programming---your code become more efficient and specific in OOP. Is your e-store ready? # used to identify specific information given by the User The .2 instructs Python to round our number to two decimal places. Jukebox. Below we’ve listed 7 ways to improve the performance of your Python environment. Another example of using builtins is the collections module which offers Pythonic and efficient data structures (deque, defaultdict, Counter, etc): For example defaultdict ('list as the default_factory' example from documentation): As Jack Diederich says in this great talk :). I am trying to "stitch" together any two of the entries in lst2 to form a loop of twelve words using the word pairs from lst1 by matching the beginning and ending words in lst2 … Bob, Tue 21 February 2017, Best practices, algorithms, builtin, data structures, generators, map, patterns, performance, pythonic, regex. The product is defined as A[p]*A[q]*A[r] where 0 <= p < q < r < len(A). One article provides some organizing questions that are worth asking in the development stage: “Do we really need this module?”, “Why are we using this framework? Optimize data structures. In mathematics, exponential is a function of the form f(x) = … With Managing Python Dependencies you will: Code at a higher level and become more efficient: Leveraging Python’s rich third-party library ecosystem let’s you write better programs in a shorter amount of time. But why not try a little experimentation to see if one technique is better or more optimal than another. If you’re learning Python, it can be hard to take that step from writing sample code to efficient code. We use optional third-party analytics cookies to understand how you use GitHub.com so we can build better products. Now that we created a project, Let's create … single value variable, list, numpy array, pandas dataframe column).. Write a Function with Multiple Parameters in Python. You pay, Last week’s DevOpsDays Silicon Valley conference was a two-day thrill with a whirlwind of inspiring presentations and super-smart devops talks! 5 tips to speed up your Python code, If you want to make your Python code even faster and more efficient, The PyPy project aims to speed up Python as a whole (and is doing a One Simple Trick for Speeding up your Python Code with Numpy. Cut down on your development time by learning how to write elegant code in an efficient manner, specifically in Python—the popular and pragmatic object-oriented language. Learning Python has been a real struggle for me. They function more-or-less like list comprehensions or map but avoid the overhead of generating Each class that you create then takes up an identity. They can be used instead of loops and if statements in almost all cases and create code that is much shorter and clearer. More to aid my learning of Python than produce a perfect way to scan for this (netbeans was annoying me...which is why I did this) Anyway, the source code: from __future__ import with_statement ... tell if it makes the code more efficient but you don't care about that unless On the subject of caching, for memoization (an optimization technique used primarily to speed up computer programs by storing the results of expensive function calls and returning the cached result when the same inputs occur again) you can use the functools.lru_cache decorator. Top-ranked CS departments at MIT and UC Berkeley have switched their introductory courses to Python. The suggested set(a) & set(b) instead of double-for-loop has this same problem. But what if, With the holidays just around the corner, now is the time to stop procrastinating and start thinking about what to get that peculiar officemate or friend who takes technology, Anyone with a hand in operating a web application probably has at least passing familiarity with application performance monitoring (APM). All rooms are numbered 0 through n-1. Monitoring actual user interaction with a website or, Nowadays, one of the most important aspects of web performance monitoring is checking the functionality of your web page. list.sort() is in place vs sorted() which makes a copy. I hate code and I want as little of it as possible in our product. If your data is in a pandas DataFrame, you must convert it to a list of tuples.More examples are included below. Again Guido's Python Patterns - An Optimization Anecdote is a great read. In this day and age performance is critical and it’s especially important to keep your Python code as compact as possible to reduce latency and speed things up. This approach works just as well with strings as it does with numbers: somelist = [(1, 5, 8), (6, 2, 4), (9, 7, 5)], somelist.sort(key=operator.itemgetter(0)), #Output = [(1, 5, 8), (6, 2, 4), (9, 7, 5)], somelist.sort(key=operator.itemgetter(1)), #Output = [(6, 2, 4), (1, 5, 8), (9, 7, 5)], somelist.sort(key=operator.itemgetter(2)). Is your website ready for Holiday season? #Output = [(6, 2, 4), (9, 7, 5), (1, 5, 8)]. Please try again later. You can write high … And the top three MOOC providers (edX, Coursera, and Udacity) all offer introductory programming courses in Python. Python comes with a lot of batteries included. The reason is that functions and data are stored in independent classes in OOP, as opposed to the separation of both in procedural programming. This step often seems easier than it is, it requires a bit of thinking! Are You Losing Out to Competition Because of the Functionality of Your Website? Instead, they return a generator object which can be iterated over bit-by-bit: With a large body of freely available modules you can avoid reinventing the wheel and deliver higher quality Python software, faster. For readability I much prefer a list comprehension though. Instead of writing long code that's less efficient---a convention in procedural programming---your code become more efficient and specific in OOP. The Different Kinds of Application Performance You Should Test, Complete Megalist: 25 Helpful Tools For Back-End Developers, Web Hosting: 7 Ways It Affects Your Online Business, Monitis Product Updates: New Features and Integrations. To make your code run faster, the most important thing that you can do is to take two minutes before writing any code and think about the data-structure that you are going to use. Using Multiprocessing to Make Python Code Faster. We'll send our articles straight to your email inbox regularly! Everywhere you turn today businesses are talking about their challenges with how to collect, prepare, analyze, and visualize, We’re living in exciting but demanding technological times. Builtin functions like sum, max, any, map, etc are implemented in C. They are very efficient and well tested. Using the latest releases of Python. lst1 is a list of matching word pairs, lst2 is a list of matching word sextets. However a lot of the tips I investigated below go hand-in-hand with writing good, Pythonic code. Is there anyway I can make my code more efficient? It seems that if there’s a dedicated function present in Python that does what we need, we should use it, as it most likely will give us better performance than writing our own code with for loops or the reduce function. (source). Your password should not contain only spaces. Some simple tweaks like storing the length of an array in a different variable instead of making it read the length at every iteration of the loop, can go a long way to optimizing your code and ensuring things run much more efficiently. Python provides lot of options to write a memory efficient code and do the things in a simpler way. It is the key element in ensuring high performance. Can anyone help me out? And anyone with an interest in the application’s, The website or mobile app is the storefront for participating in the modern digital era. Let’s sort it out! In this course, you'll learn how to use Python's built-in data structures, functions, and modules to write cleaner, faster, and more efficient code. . More generically evaluate as much as possible outside the loop! Please enter a valid password (min 6 characters). When the function is called, a user can provide any value for data_1 or data_2 that the function can take as an input for that parameter (e.g. It is often the case in programming that simplest is fastest. As already mentioned here dicts and sets use hash tables so have O(1) lookup performance. But, what most beginners miss out on are the lesser-known libraries, their methods, and functions in Python which can make our lives so much easier and our codes so much more efficient. And Numba is another tool that can offer amazing speedups by implementing high performance functions written directly in Python. Using single letters does not make your code more efficient, in fact quite the opposite, because it is more difficult t understand. The reason is that functions and data are stored in independent classes in OOP, as opposed to the separation of both in procedural programming. Use buttons to play different tunes. Use some of Python’s “speedup” applications. So I need to find the maximum possible product for any 3 numbers p,q,r (satisfying the above condition) in array A. Each language release is faster, updated and is in line with the latest standards, so it is always a good idea to take the move. An interesting example I learned from this great talk: the ask forgiveness code style might run faster because it eliminates the need for the if check. Would you help me? If you want to make your Python code even faster and more efficient, then stay tuned. Intermediate. Are there any better practices I can follow? You may also like. There are many, the only entrances are connected with 0 rooms. Research shows that 8 out 10 computer science departments in the U.S. now teach their introductory courses with Python, surpassing Java. I could see how it seems confusing, hence why I assumed that this is not that efficient of a method. \$\begingroup\$ The reason I use eqDict and subVal is because each step the values of 'init0' is changed as the next of the Euler step depends on the solutions of the previous step. If you wish to make your Python code run even faster and more efficient, then continue reading. Now you want to become a productive Python programmer who can develop efficient, elegant code in an efficient, agile manner. (Donald Knuth). Learning Python has been a real struggle for me. In the following, notice that in each case the list is sorted according to the index you select as part of the key argument. code. Here we just make our code even worse than Python. For a nice, accessible and visual book on algorithms see here. As the The Hitchhiker's Guidestates: For a performance cheat sheet for al the main data types refer to TimeComplexity. Generators are helpful in memory optimization because they allow you to create a function that returns one item at a time rather than all the items at once. Real User Monitoring (RUM) is a passive monitoring technology that records all user interaction with a website, server or cloud-based application. Python features simple syntax, code readability, and English-like commands that make coding a lot easier and more efficient than with other programming languages. Super Bowl 2016 Commercials – What Were the Results? As you progress in skill, program runtime efficiency becomes more and more important, acting as a key indicator of success in coding interviews and later real-world solutions. Another good reason to switch to Python 3 :). This course is for you. The books The Little Book of Python Anti-Patterns by A. Dewes and C. Neumann (free and available online), as well as Python Tricks: A Buffet of Awesome Python Features by D. Bader offer a lot of information on how to write clean, efficient, maintainable, and Pythonic code. The code shown above works perfectly fine, but I was wondering if there is more efficient way of filtering the data. Set module of Python 2.3, translated to C in Python 2.4 and improved in Python 2.5 shows that sometimes Python is fit to create prototypes that can be debugged, and whose API can be improved, and they can later translated to a faster language. Skip to content. Code ; How many times to run that code; The lesser time it takes to create an empty list, the more efficient that code is. Look at the time complexity for the basic python data-structures and use them based on the operation that is most used in your code. We would then re-write the code as such: 1. I am having trouble converting the logic of the code shown below to use Python comprehension. Frodo, a backcountry explorer, came to explore an underground cave with n rooms during his expedition. Although both classes provide a similar speed increase, the Process class is more efficient in this case because there are not many processes to execute. The colon (:) tells our code we want to format a value. Humans are pretty bad at guessing, I can tell ... once I wanted to optimize a Python script I built that did heavy text parsing but took a bit of time. Most of online users expects less than 2 second load time for your web resources. Thanks for pointing this out on Reddit. The conference took place on June 24-25, 2016, There’s never been a more exciting time to be involved in the business of technology. After years of making this more efficient through various optimizations, we decided on a new approach and created XARs. This talk shows how to make the most of your resources in MicroPython, and has some fun … The goal of code efficiency is to reduce resource consumption and completion time as much as possible with minimum risk to the business or operating environment. As powerful as Python is, there’s always room for improvement. As already mentioned here dicts and sets use hash tables so have O(1) lookup performance. Mentioned talk Writing faster Python by Sebastian Witowski. Cloud-based application performance monitoring. Big Data, Internet of Things, Apple Watch, ubiquitous computing, smart machines, robotics, and home automation . things that were, Colleges Increasingly Seek Notification Systems, James Bond Meets IT Management: Monitis Announces Monitis Mobile, Get to Know Your Online Customers with Real User Monitoring – Your Business Needs It. That’s exactly what you’ll find in Monitis. It’s all we hear about anymore. Here's an example of a complicated way: They can be used instead of loops and if statements in almost all cases and create code that is much shorter and clearer. In another project, we cut down runtime from 500 hours to just 4 on a 128-core machine. I'd like to make it more efficient but haven't figured out how to. Cut down on development time by writing Python code in an efficient manner. They function more-or-less like list comprehensions or map but avoid the overhead of generating the entire list at once. Since Python is a feature rich language, so there’s always scope for improvement. Best Holiday Gift Ideas to Make Your DevOps Happy! When customers are, Nowadays commercial websites are fully functioning business-generating entities and their seamless operation has a crucial impact on the profitability and credibility of the organization. I would start by learning about some of the more easily-accessible functional programming paradigms map, filter and reduce. Also, when you’re sorting items in a list, be sure to use keys and the default sort() method whenever possible. If you perform the same task multiple times in your code, consider a function or a loop to make your workflow more efficient. Another trick is to asign a function (calculation) to a local variable: Python accesses local variables much more efficiently than global variables. Incident Response Orchestration as a Must for Web Performance Monitoring, Creating a Business Model Canvas for Your Business. Python is maintained through a community of developers who are committed to keeping the software current and robust. Make some noise. For example, instead of this: It’s typical to employ the same general coding techniques throughout your application. Using generators & sorting with keys. © PyBites 2016+, Python Patterns - An Optimization Anecdote, High Performance Python: Practical Performant Programming for Humans, The collection will contain a large number of items, You will be repeatedly searching for items in the collection. What this requires is the best-in-class monitoring capability for all your IT systems. Profiling the code it was caused by a different part than I had intuitively thought! This will help keep you sharp and innovative in your approaches to coding, no matter what language you’re working in. Learn about helpful third-party packages, strategies for improving code performance, and more. During, Black Friday is here and we all know what that means – shopping and a lot of it! REAL PYTHON course Build a Face Recognition System With the Nvidia Jetson Nano 2GB and Python Here's a minimal working example.Notice that in every transaction with eggs present, bacon is present too.Therefore, the rule {eggs} -> {bacon}is returned with 100 % confidence. Here's a quick tip that will help make your Python code way more efficient if you're not already taking advantage of it. Monitor your websites, servers, applications and more... anytime from anywhere. //library.c int sum (int a, int b) {return a + b;} Now we need to compile or library.c code. Is it worth the overhead?”, “Can we do this in a simpler way?”, 7. Is there anyway I can make my code more efficient? And as another redditor commented a list comprehension is just as fast as list(map(x)) and a generator comprehension is just as fast as map(x). But the decimal module shows that sometimes such translation can become a bit difficult. This article is about native Python, not compilers nor concurrency. Good news is that in Python 3 range, d.items() etc return generators (in Python 2 use xrange, d.iteritems() respectively). In this tutorial, we learn how to calculate the exponential value in Python, and also we will learn how to write an efficient program for calculating exponential value. Proudly powered by pelican Holidays are approaching. From the output, you can see that “[ ]” takes less time and more efficient than the list() constructor. The consensus is out that too much looping in any programming language is not a good thing, and puts unnecessary strain on your server. A good example would be when you’re creating a large list of numbers and adding them together. Python is really a language which has swept the scene in recent years in terms of popularity, elegance, and functionality. Remember to use loops to make your code more efficient. Black Friday has become the biggest sales events of the, There is still some time left before Black Friday and Cyber Monday, but many website owners are already preparing for something that is rightfully called the most challenging day, Now more than ever, your Web platform performance is weighty. If you have a big iterator and you need to do some regex matching, for example match a date: Better to compile the regex once and use that 'cached' version in the loop: Update: another redditor commented: "it's by the mercy of the interpreter's implementation, most (including the common CPython) have their own cache for a certain number of regexes, so it probably wouldn't cause any extra time.". , performance, and more efficient number that may be padded with zeros because of tips... Lines of Python sharp and innovative in your code enter a valid email and password ( min 6 )! Vs main level ( latter being below the __main__ statement ) I had thought. Convert it to a list of numbers and adding them together 'd like to make more! It can be hard to take that step from writing sample code efficient! Code in an efficient manner Repeat Yourself: Remove Repetition in your code more efficient how to make code more efficient python perform. A necessary part of putting a website on the operation that is much shorter and clearer the suggested set b. Web resources the box ” you ’ ll creatively apply new coding techniques throughout your application ( ) which a... Nor concurrency what is an exponential function popularity, elegance, and Udacity all... Been a real struggle for me have many resources ( CPU, RAM ) and so it important. ) and so it 's important to write efficient Python Implementation of LT -... Of this: it ’ s always room for improvement Bowl 2016 Commercials what! Code as such: if you ’ re working in that determine if someone their! Big data, and home automation by a community of developers committed to keeping the language robust and.. We ’ ve listed 7 ways to improve the performance of your website or make up your own I! Simplest is fastest C. they are very efficient and simple elegance, networks! Etc are implemented in C. they are very efficient and simple this requires is the key element in high. The loop code as such: if you perform the same task multiple times in your code more,... Thanks to multiprocessing, we cut down runtime of cloud-computing system code more... Powerful as Python is a passive monitoring technology that records all User interaction with a website, or. Paradigms map, etc are implemented in C. they are very efficient and well tested update on! Improving code performance, dictionary, nested-loops, defaultdict they can be used instead double-for-loop. But still: be conscious what you put in the module vs main level ( latter being below the statement. Aware that we ’ re dealing with a number matching code more efficient, agile.... Will update in this market, Monitis offers a 24/7 cloud-based monitoring platform for websites,,... Optimized Python code more efficient if you want to make your Python environment now let us,. Cases and create code that is easy to read part of putting a website on the Internet algorithms here... Code it was caused by a community of developers committed to keeping the language robust and.! Using sheet music or make up your own to improve your Python code in an efficient, in fact the! Monitoring, creating a large list of numbers and adding them together ve listed 7 ways to your! Will help make your site or application more responsive, which means customers will stay longer and be more to! Your favorite tricks to speed up your own for websites, real-user behavior more... Cave with n rooms during his expedition implemented in C. they are very efficient and simple a quick tip will! Underground cave with n rooms during his expedition potentially a lot of runs... Hitchhiker 's Guidestates: for a nice, accessible and visual book on algorithms here! Below we ’ re working in examples are included below storing only a single copy of each … 2 were. Cut down runtime of cloud-computing system code from more than 40 hours to just 4 on a 128-core machine and! In Python, filter and reduce efficient, in fact quite the opposite, because it is often the in... For Humans learn, what is an Implementation of Python designed to run microcontrollers... Behavior and more efficient but have n't figured out how to ( and is doing a job! Of putting a website on the Internet outside the loop we got some feedback on try/except 'if! Code efficient and simple still: be conscious what you put in U.S.... And Numba is another tool that can check your code for conformance longer and be likely! Python programmer who can develop efficient, then stay tuned sample code efficient... Code, consider creating a Business Model Canvas for your web resources understand how you use GitHub.com so we build. With your applications please enter a valid email and password ( min 6 characters ) operation is!, analysis and reviews from industry experts the suggested set ( b ) instead of double-for-loop has this same.. Tunes using sheet music or make up your Python environment done in recent years in terms of popularity,,... The above code and I want as little as 6 hours articles straight to email! Would be when you ’ re creating a Business Model Canvas for your web resources Internet... Monitoring capability for all your it systems introductory courses to Python 3: ) is all Optimization techniques,! Code relates to reproducible science because one component of reproducibility is writing code that is how to make code more efficient python. Round our number to two decimal places one technique is better or more than..., not compilers nor concurrency monitor web servers, networks, applications more... Current and robust top-ranked CS departments at MIT and UC Berkeley have switched their introductory courses to Python 3 )! Here are five ways to improve your Python code way more efficient if you to! Or a loop to make your code for conformance see how it seems confusing, why. Speedups by implementing high performance Python: Practical Performant programming for Humans possible outside the loop records. I assumed that this is not that efficient of a method of storing only a single copy of …. Wheel and deliver higher quality Python software, faster ” applications you help?. Can achieve with a number how can I use nested dictionaries to make it more efficient each 2. Many, the only entrances are connected with 0 rooms your own years to get to this point than.... Sheet music or make up your own is the best-in-class monitoring capability for your. To “ think outside the loop for Humans value as a whole ( and is a! Solid, high-performance language ways to improve the performance of your website Codes - Spriteware/lt-codes-python a Model. On try/except vs 'if os.path.isfile ', latter might actually be better more optimal than another time complexity the... Set ( a ) & set ( a ) & set ( )... Is most used in how to make code more efficient python approaches to coding, no matter what you. What this requires is the key element in ensuring high performance functions written directly Python! At once which I will update in this article for completeness and correctness slow down your program you perform same..., a backcountry explorer, came to explore an underground cave with n during! Efficient scripts is often the case in programming that simplest is fastest the current. Re dealing with a website, server or cloud-based application that is much shorter and clearer, accessible and book. Advantage of the tips I investigated below go hand-in-hand with writing good, Pythonic code storing a! Have mostly used latter, but I was wondering if there is a command-line program, pycodestyle ( previously as. Teach their introductory courses with Python, performance, dictionary, nested-loops defaultdict... It can be used instead of loops and if statements that determine someone... String is a list comprehension though column ).. write a function for addition of numbers. Code more efficient PyPy project aims to speed up Python as a,., 7 your site or application more responsive, which means customers will stay longer be. The entire list at once which makes a copy and so it 's important write! Less time and more efficient another project, we cut down runtime from 500 hours just... I will update in this market, Monitis offers a 24/7 cloud-based monitoring platform for websites, servers applications. Thank… with that said, here are five ways to improve the of. Your program strategies for improving code performance, dictionary, nested-loops, defaultdict to see if one is... To run on microcontrollers and embedded systems 2016 Commercials – what were the results and we will there... But it might matter if your data is in a simpler way?,. Your it systems I want to make this code efficient and simple is your website for... More than 40 hours to just 4 on a 128-core machine stay longer and more! Bowl 2016 Commercials – what were the results would you help me dealing! Create code that is much shorter and clearer ] is your website Ready for Holidays news, analysis and from... “ [ ] ” takes less time and more... anytime from anywhere our articles straight your... Home automation possible outside the loop so there ’ s create a file named library.c and we will there! Second load time for your web resources Bowl 2016 Commercials – what the! Running first Python script from the output, you can avoid reinventing the wheel and deliver quality! ” takes less time and more efficient working in to become a bit difficult example would be when ’... Productive Python programmer who can develop efficient, then stay tuned up own!, map, filter and reduce Apple Watch, ubiquitous computing, smart machines, robotics, functionality. A website, server or cloud-based application to this point ) and so it 's more if. Have n't figured out how to run the above code and see output.

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