In Papua, the chiefs did not have the power and influence over their tribes in the manner they did in Fiji. 145 0 obj <> endobj 158 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<4D360E4B78D74E45AC12F454EDB78211><3FE61C4280D14C38A00B912D0EE851E6>]/Index[145 17]/Info 144 0 R/Length 70/Prev 1601979/Root 146 0 R/Size 162/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream The developing countries thus confront a major contradiction in relation to the aid and loan agencies. Between 1973 and 1975, the progress towards full political independence for Papua and New Guinea was rapid. The Government is also aware that underneath all that is done in the Territory is a problem of working out our own relationship with the people ... (cited in Biskup, Jinks & Nelson, 1968:134). The Constable system, for example, had arbitrarily grouped together villages which did not have much in common. The consequences of these policy shifts have been dramatic for PNG, which has now become dependent on foreign goods. As the nation is currently constituted, Papua New Guinea's land mass is approximately 463,000 square kilometres (see PNG physical features map 2). The Government had also initiated moves to extend its control over eight other centres, namely, Rabaul (East New Britain), Madang (Madang Province), Kavieng (New Ireland Province), Namatanai (New Ireland Province), Kieta (Bougainville), Morobe (Morobe Province), Aitape (West Sepik) and Lorengau (Manus Province) (Mair, 1970:34-35). After independence, many of these expatriates chose to stay in PNG, sometimes as immigrants. It can be reflected in the values system which structures the relationship between the coloniser and the colonised. Richer nations no longer have an interest in administering the poorer nations; rather there is now a pattern of economic exploitation and ideological control through the operations of an international capitalism that is not confined to national boundaries. The colonised, although manipulated to some extent, are nevertheless willing partners. Both industry and agriculture are mechanized. Nandy's account thus challenges the traditional view that only the coloniser is responsible for the act of colonisation and the colonised has nothing to do with this power relationship. Its aim was to bring the opposing factions under a single administrative regime and a system of justice that was, from the point of view of the settlers, uniform and predictable. The shopping list is simple, at least where I stand--local business development; infrastructure improvement; environmental protection; human resources development; and the promotion of an ethical business culture. The Fifth Directive in the National Constitution refers to Papua New Guinea Ways. Australia was obliged to promote this principle. It suggested the provision of universal primary education, with a plan of rapid growth in secondary education. It assumes that the stages of development are already defined; that all human societies must go through these stages; and that a linear historical order defines the terms in which a society's development must be measured. There was a tremendous demand for education that was far beyond the ability of the missions to provide. The National Government also claims ownership of urban areas like Port Moresby, Lae, Hagen, Madang, Rabaul, Wewak and Lorengau. Balandier sees colonialism as a political phenomenon. Their role, however, was largely advisory--on questions of how to improve the quality of life in the villages. The cycle of dependency thus persists, with economic rationality subordinating all other policy concerns. However, in this relationship, the rulers are those who assume the power to make decisions which affect either directly or indirectly the livelihood of the ruled. These disputes have led to a struggle between the PNG government forces and the Bougainville Revolutionary Army, the military elements of the traditional landowners. Firstly, while it sought to accommodate the traditional patterns of leadership and perhaps allow some degree of participation of indigenous people, in the long run, it proved ineffective because in most cases the selection of the luluais and tultuls was not based on traditional leadership, but on a range of other considerations. 1 Religious education has a statutory position in Scottish education, relating to schools but not to pre-school centres. Its economic dimensions cannot, for example, be understood adequately without reference to its ideological or political dimensions. The Act created an Executive Council which had three members, all appointed by the Australian Government. It is significant to note, however, that the Fifth Directive is couched in terms of an aspiration that is post-colonial: the emphasis on the Papua New Guinea "ways" expresses a set of values that are defined in opposition to the colonial values into which Papua New Guineans were supposed to assimilate prior to political independence. The new entrepreneurs work through foreign companies or organisations, and often engage local entrepreneurs as business partners in the exploitation of both renewable and non-renewable resources. In colonised countries, on the other hand, there is a varying degree of complicity and resistance to colonial advances. They felt that cultural change was inevitable once the natives accepted Christianity. During the colonial period, a centralised public service had been created in PNG to make a range of decisions about the infrastructure needs of the country (Turner, 1991). It can also be defined as an ideological phenomenon (Fanon, 1966). The Momis Report effectively provided the framework for PNG's current Constitution, defining the powers and responsibilities of each of the levels of government. In traditional terms, most of the land, sea and reef are owned by the members of clans and tribes. Even before political independence, the idea of western education became institutionalised in the PNG communities. Effectively, this meant the construction of a new relationship between Australia and the emerging nation, based on a functional division of power. The colonial relationship cannot be obtained without the active involvement and the complicity of the colonised. It is suggested that it was the importation and exploitation of cheap raw materials from the colonies that enabled the rapid growth of capitalism in Europe. Wolfers (1993:247) argues: the composition of traditional communities has never been static or absolutely fixed. Since the work of Prebisch, most debates which relate to the issues on development studies revolve around modernisation and dependency theories. The paper is reprinted from the International Journal of University Adult Education 24 (2) (1987). At the village level, a system of village constables was established whose role was to ensure that Resident Magistrates' decisions were implemented. They had little administrative experience and were mostly seeking adventure. Some still serve as elected politicians in the PNG parliament. The push for self-government for the indigenous people came about as a result of a range of other factors (Downs, 1980:459-484). It is in Western culture that the terms of the debate have been defined and by the same token it is Western culture that provides the model for development however it is conceptualised. This Agreement had stipulated that Australia was to ensure that the indigenous customs were protected; that their rights and possessions were not taken away from them; that Australia was to educate the indigenous people; and that it was to ensure that the locals participated in running the affairs of the Territory. Related peoples are divided; villagers own land or have traditional rights to hunt and collect on both sides of an international border. For the colonisers it can mean arrogance, vainglory, and narcissism. In 1616, Maire and Schouten sailed the northern coast and then across the Bismark Sea to New Ireland. His critical views of modernisation theory became the basis for the dependency theory, an alternative view on development studies. The Administrative Unit was known as the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit (ANGAU), and was formed initially to provide support for the War effort (Biskup, Jinks & Nelson, 1968:111), but later became a permanent feature of the colonial state. The Australian Government was embarrassed by the Foot Report, and moved quickly to establish a number of reform initiatives. What this means is that all citizens should have an equal opportunity to participate in and benefit from the development of the nation. It is a society's capacity to exploit the material resources found in the natural environment that characterises its stage of development. Devolution has been viewed as an important strategy to ensure the development of an educational system that reconciles the competing demands of the traditional ways of life and life in a society that is increasingly determined by the cultural imperatives of a cash economy. The word "New Guinea" suggested the discovery of a new territory which the colonial adventurers thought was geographically similar to Guinea on the coast of Africa (Ryan, 1982:2). The cash economy capacity of the country is very limited. It provides the legal and administrative framework which binds different parts of the nation together. Through this system, the whole of New Guinea was, either directly or indirectly, under the control of the German colonial authorities by 1914. The Kiaps played a powerful role: as administrators, as police officers and as magistrates rolled into one position. These are individuals who retain considerable economic interests in the country which they could be expected to protect from their positions of power. domination of an alien minority, asserting racial and cultural superiority, over a materially inferior native majority; contact between a machine-oriented civilisation with Christian origins, a powerful economy, and a rapid rhythm of life, and a non-Christian civilisation that lacks machines and is marked by a backward economy and a slow rhythm of life; and the imposition of the first civilisation upon the second based in a linear concept of progress. By the Second World War, the administrative systems of Papua and New Guinea had become remarkably similar (Downs, 1980). Before independence, the expatriates did not work only in the public service, but they were also business people, traders and missionaries, and as such played an important part in the running of the country. The problem with the metaphors Fletcher uses to understand development is that they risk clouding the issues rather the clarifying them. It argued that the decision-making processes in the Territory had remained dominated by Australian officers and that the indigenous people had little say in their own affairs. During this period there was a scramble for colonies in the African continent. In both the colonising and colonised nations, there is often a wide range of views about the origins, practices and impact of colonialism. Blaut suggests that colonialism contributed to the expansion of capitalism, giving it new forms. It continued to receive little attention by curriculum administrators, or schools. People demand you to buy them motor vehicles or give them money because they have been your campaign managers or cast their votes in your favour. There is thus a dialectical relationship between the traditions that remain and the trends that are emerging. In 1972, the name of the territory was changed to Papua New Guinea. Most of the discussion on development in the literature (for example, Fagerlind and Saha, 1989) revolves around four models, notably: the classic cyclical model, the Augustine Christian model, the Linear model, and the cyclical linear model. In the operations of local schools, those residing in the traditional communities were given little opportunity to participate either in decision-making or in teaching activities. It is interesting to note that in 1952 there were only 334 local officers in the public service (Downs, 1980), most of them occupying junior clerical key positions and thus unable to make a contribution to the major decisions which affected the development of Papua and New Guinea (Parker, 1966b). The boundaries of these Districts have been maintained in post-independence Papua New Guinea and are now known as the Provinces. The classic cyclical model is based on the assumption that every society follows a pattern of "the never-ending cycles of growth and decay of all material things" (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:29). And when nation-states acquire power and prestige, they become recognised as civilisations. It should be noted, however, that this decision-making structure was largely advisory and that the Administrator and the public service retained a great deal of de facto power. In the colonies, capital accumulation was possible in a context of extremely favourable labour conditions. Throughout PNG, the climate consists of two seasons only: wet and dry, mostly influenced by strong monsoon winds. However, while this arrangement might have worked in Fiji, it did not in Papua, because chieftainship, in so far as it existed, worked very differently in Papua. Recent post-Marxist analyses of colonialism, for example, the work of Hommi Bhabba (1994), are instructive. The PNG Government fears the creation of a dependency relationship on foreigners because they have the power of the purse: for after all, if they can control the economy of the country, it is possible they can also control the government and influence the formulation and implementation of key policy decisions. Second, they argued that services should not aspire to be like those which were available in Australia, but should be determined with the goal of the widest possible availability in mind--they should reach as many people as possible even if quality had to be compromised. It was claimed that the British achieved social control by denying education to Africans (Ball, 1983). Also, they often set one tribe against another in order to keep disputes going so that they could retain their own influence and control. In the hands of some Latin American writers, the theory of dependency is used as a deus ex machina explanation for everything which seems to be wrong with Latin American society. The census shows that 85 percent of the population lives in the rural area (World Bank Report 1988:xi). The missionaries also saw themselves as having a major responsibility to develop among indigenous people, those values that contributed to the development of Papua New Guinea as a "civilised" nation. In most colonised countries, this has resulted in the formation of a dual or mixed economy (Brookfield, 1972). People travel by plane and motor boats, but they still sail the open seas by outrigger canoes. Spybey (1992:5) contends: The rise of Western civilisation is the most significant factor in the concept of modernization, the dependency critique and their transcending through structuration theory. It suggested that more Europeans might need to be recruited both in public and private sectors to quicken the pace of development. Ideas and concepts do not occur in a vacuum, but are the products of the social, cultural and historical events surrounding them (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:5). In the Sepik, Western, and Gulf Provinces, human habitation is widely regarded as very unattractive. The Report also criticised Australian policies for their failure to attend to the issues of indigenous economic development. Through the existing education system, India has pro­duced in the last five decades number of scientists, professionals and technocrats who have excelled in their fields and made a mark at the na­tional and international levels. In each District the work of the Kiaps was co-ordinated by Commissioners who were in turn accountable to the colonial Administrator in Port Moresby. Development must occur in ways which preserve resources for the future and which respect the multiplicity of social and cultural groups which make up the country and encourage them to make their unique contribution to the fabric of the nation. When you take away our land, you cut away the heart of our existence. How is it used in educational discourses in PNG? Because of the rate of change, education itself--its goals, content and fonm--nad to change in order to be effective in initiating people Before independence, the central administration was mostly staffed by expatriates; very few Papua New Guineans held senior administrative jobs in the public service (Dwivedi and Pitil, 1991). The problem of extensive levels of youth alienation in PNG is arguably linked to these contradictions. The PNG Government accuses the Solomon Islands government of harbouring and supporting the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (Post-Courier, 30 April 1993). The policies concerning the need to develop a largely western education system have become institutionalised. He did not appreciate the cruelties inflicted by the colonisers on the colonised. Many Third World economies have become heavily dependent for their very survival on outside assistance. h�bbd``b`z$�@��� ��� V��� �4�D(��W��,F���� 4> endstream endobj startxref 0 %%EOF 161 0 obj <>stream The divisional administration and the village constable system recommended by Griffith was maintained, though it was felt that administrative work should be supported by a local council in each village. In the view of colonisers, there are no alternative traditions superior to their own. A dependency relationship had been created: the villagers had felt that the central administration would provide the goods and services they needed. This colonialist thinking also conflicted with the Agreement of the United Nations under which Australia had accepted the responsibility to govern the Territory. h�b```f``�c`a`�sc`@ &�(G#�#��`d`�ѹ�!��f��������e�4,�P޼q֜j����|-u&��7ug-۔�K���KS����9s�̞=gN!14 nh`� B"�h b�Tt��@�� t�,c2cc,�3�c.����錳/�U�0H���@1݆�8�A�� D��@� vDO� endstream endobj 146 0 obj <> endobj 147 0 obj <>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB]/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/Type/Page>> endobj 148 0 obj <>stream But arguably economic interests were more important. The legacy of colonialism has been much more persistent than many might have wished. ... historically this has involved the establishment of an international division of labour, whereby Europe and North America became largely the manufacturers of the finished products and the Third World, the supplier of raw materials and cash-crops agricultural products. The loans are mostly conditional and they have to be repaid over a period of time, whereas the grants are utilised mostly in the economic interests of the donor countries or agencies. It represents a justificatory scheme through which domination is legitimised. The missionaries of different Christian denominations went out to convert the heathens, believing it to be their moral and Christian duty to bring light to their darker brethren so that these "primitives" could become civilised. They see themselves as people of New Ireland, Manus, East New Britain, Papuans or Highlanders. They became involved in the hunting of whales as well. Many people are caught between traditional and modern societies, and in some cases people have difficulty in coping with the demands and obligations of the receding traditional society, and the demands and expectations of the emerging society. They were often manipulated by the colonial officials in supporting positions that were not in the interests of the villages they represented. Parliamentarians in PNG regard themselves more as leaders of their people than as their representatives. Accordingly, the expatriates are considered by the PNG Government to be indispensable to the processes of economic and social development. While Balandier's view of colonialism is couched in terms that seem dated now, his observation that colonialism needs to be understood as an ideological phenomenon is still relevant, and is applicable to contemporary expressions of colonialism. It argued that indigenous people should be given greater opportunities to be able to make decisions that affected them, even if this meant learning from their mistakes on how to govern their own country. In effect, they became important cogs in the political and administrative machinery of the colonial state. It is assumed that human beings will increasingly utilise material values to seek their own pleasure, but that this will be halted by a major catastrophic event which will restore spirituality and divine order. Land is our physical life-food and sustenance. Dependency theory seeks to address this contradiction, but is not without its own problems. Physical Education in Papua New Guinea (PNG) schools did not appear to be widespread nor progressing effectively. These demands for secession have also damaged the relationship between PNG and the Solomon Islands. The Britain gave a lot of support to them but the fact was that the Government in India and Britain And while such a synthesis has proved to be difficult to conceptualise and implement, the rhetoric surrounding the need for such a synthesis persists. some Western education, an African had a chance at a lifestyle that up to that time he or she could only read about in Western school textbooks. 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